Sample Notes: How Do Sociologists Approach The Study of Society?

1.1 How do sociologists approach the study of society?

1.1.1 The Positivist Approach

• Definition: A scientific approach to studying society, developed from natural sciences. Positivists believe social reality is external and objective, and can be studied using the scientific method.
• Scientific Method:
  • Observation
  • Hypothesis formation
  • Testing through structured methods
  • Drawing conclusions
  • Replication to ensure reliability
• Macro View:
  • Focus on large-scale social structures (institutions, systems, social forces)
  • Examples: studying the impact of education systems on job opportunities
• Social Facts (Emile Durkheim):
  • Aspects of social life that influence individual behavior
  • Objective, measurable, external to the individual
  • Examples: laws, family structures, religion, norms
• Quantitative Data:
  • Numerical data used for statistical analysis
  • Collected via:
    • Surveys
    • Questionnaires
    • Official statistics
  • Allows comparisons, generalizations, patterns
• Causation and Correlation:
  • Causation: One variable causes change in another (e.g. low income causes higher crime)
  • Correlation: Two variables are related, but not necessarily causal
• Patterns and Trends:
  • Statistical data can show:
    • Patterns (e.g. crime rates by age group)
    • Trends over time (e.g. decline in marriage rates)
• Objectivity and Reliability:
  • Positivists aim for value-free research
  • Objectivity: No personal bias
  • Reliability: Repeatable results using same method

1.1.2 The Interpretivist Approach

• Definition: Focus on understanding social action through meaning and context. Society is understood through individual experiences rather than measurable ‘facts’.
• Micro View:
  • Focus on small-scale interactions
  • Example: how students experience school discipline
• Meanings and Motivations:
  • Emphasizes understanding the reasons behind human behavior
  • Studies how individuals interpret and respond to social situations
• Qualitative Data:
  • Descriptive, in-depth data
  • Methods include:
    • Unstructured interviews
    • Participant observation
    • Personal diaries
  • Provides insight into thoughts, feelings, beliefs
• In-depth Research:
  • Detailed understanding of individual/group behavior
  • Not generalizable, but highly valid
• Subjectivity:
  • Acknowledges researcher bias may be present
  • Focus is on empathy and depth, not detachment
• Validity and Verstehen:
  • Validity: Accuracy in reflecting social reality
  • Verstehen (Weber): Deep empathetic understanding of social actors’ perspectives

1.1.3 Approaches that Combine Methods and Evidence

• Triangulation:
  • Use of multiple methods to cross-check results
  • Combines qualitative and quantitative approaches
  • Improves reliability and validity
  • Example: Combining surveys with interviews in studying educational achievement
• Longitudinal Studies:
  • Conducted over a long period
  • Tracks changes over time in same individuals/groups
  • Strengths:
    • Shows long-term effects and patterns
    • Useful for studying social mobility
  • Limitations:
    • Expensive
    • Time-consuming
    • Risk of drop-outs

1.1.4 The Analysis and Evaluation of Research Choices

• Bias:
  • Researcher’s beliefs or expectations affecting the research outcome
  • Example: Asking leading questions
• Interviewer Effect:
  • Interviewee changes answers due to interviewer’s appearance, tone, behavior
  • Mitigated by neutral wording and appearance
• Hawthorne/Observer Effect:
  • Participants alter behavior when they know they’re being studied
  • Common in experiments or overt observations
• Validity:
  • Degree to which data reflects reality
  • High in interpretivist research
  • Lower in rigid questionnaires
• Reliability:
  • Repeatability of research
  • Positivist methods (e.g. structured surveys) more reliable
  • Interpretivist methods less so due to subjectivity
• Representativeness:
  • Whether the sample reflects the broader population
  • Important for generalizability
  • Larger, random samples usually more representative
• Generalisability:
  • Ability to apply findings to wider population
  • Depends on sample size, method used, representativeness

Examples for Application

Key Differences: Positivist vs Interpretivist

Key Terms Summary

• Social Facts: Observable realities in society
• Verstehen: Empathetic understanding
• Validity: Accuracy of research
• Reliability: Repeatability of results
• Triangulation: Using multiple methods
• Longitudinal: Time-based research
• Bias: Distortion in research

Exam Application Strategy

1. Define the approach or concept.
2. State the key features and methods used.
3. Compare Positivist and Interpretivist approaches.
4. Apply to a given example (e.g. education, crime).
5. Evaluate using terms like validity, reliability, bias, and generalisability.
6. Support with real-world or textbook examples.