Social Identity And Change: Social Class, Gender, Ethnicity And Age As Elements In The Construction Of Social Identity. (Copy)
Meaning of Social Identity
- Social identity = how individuals define themselves in relation to social groups, roles and cultural categories
- Formed through socialisation, interaction and the meanings society attaches to groups
- Identity is not fixed; it is:
- Socially constructed
- Negotiated
- Influenced by power relations
- Shaped by social institutions (family, school, media, religion, workplace)
- Major identity categories include:
- Social class
- Gender
- Ethnicity
- Age
- Religion
- Nationality
- These categories influence:
- Life chances
- Behaviour
- Expectations
- Norms
- Opportunities
- Status
Social Class and Social Identity
Meaning of Social Class
- A system of stratification based on economic resources, occupation, education, culture and lifestyle
- Class is both an economic and cultural identity
- Major class groups often discussed:
- Upper class
- Middle class
- Working class
- Underclass
How Class Shapes Identity
- Through lifestyles, consumption patterns, speech, manners and attitudes
- Individuals learn class identity from family (primary socialisation)
- Class identity reinforced through school, neighbourhoods, work and peer groups
Cultural Capital (Bourdieu)
- Middle-class children gain:
- Cultural knowledge
- Language skills (elaborated code)
- Confidence interacting with authority
- Understanding of dominant norms
- Working-class children possess:
- Restricted codes
- Less institutional recognition
- Cultural capital shapes identity by:
- Determining which behaviours feel “natural”
- Influencing school success
- Creating a sense of belonging or exclusion
Habitus (Bourdieu)
- Habitus = deeply embedded class-based dispositions
- Includes tastes, preferences, aspirations, ways of speaking
- Individuals behave in class-consistent ways because habitus shapes their expectations
- A working-class habitus may produce:
- Practical outlook
- Strong group identity
- Resistance to authority
- Middle-class habitus may produce:
- Academic confidence
- Goal orientation
- Sense of entitlement
Social Class and Identity in Schools
- Working-class students often labelled as “less academic” → self-fulfilling prophecy
- Middle-class students rewarded for compliance, confidence and communication
- Anti-school subcultures (Willis “the lads”) show working-class identity resisting school norms
Postmodern Perspective
- Class identity becoming more fragmented
- Consumption and lifestyle matter as much as occupation
- Individuals may create hybrid class identities through fashion, media and leisure
Written and Compiled By Sir Hunain Zia, World Record Holder With 154 Total A Grades, 7 Distinctions and 11 World Records For Educate A Change AS Level Sociology Full Scale Course
Gender and Social Identity
Meaning of Gender Identity
- Gender identity = social meanings attached to being male, female or other gender categories
- Gender is socially constructed, not biologically fixed
- Individuals learn gender identity through socialisation agents:
- Family
- School
- Media
- Religion
- Peer groups
How Gender Shapes Identity
- Expectations about behaviour, dress, emotions, roles, careers
- Masculinity and femininity are learned cultural scripts
- Individuals internalise gender norms as part of their identity
Social Construction of Gender (Feminist Perspective)
- Gender created through repeated social practices, not biology
- Ann Oakley: four processes of gender socialisation
- Manipulation
- Canalisation
- Verbal appellation
- Domestic activities
- Gender stereotypes reinforced through toys, clothes, colours, activities
Masculinity and Femininity
- Traditional masculinity:
- Strength, dominance, independence
- Provider role
- Emotional reserve
- Traditional femininity:
- Caring, nurturing, modest, emotional
- Domestic roles
- Appearance-focused
Connell – Multiple Masculinities
- Hegemonic masculinity (dominant ideal)
- Complicit masculinity
- Subordinate masculinity
- Marginalised masculinity
- Shows that gender identity is diverse and hierarchical
Changing Gender Identities
- Rise of working women, education, social media → new femininities
- Growing acceptance of emotional expression among men → new masculinities
- LGBTQ+ activism → gender identity becomes fluid, negotiated, hybrid
Media and Gender Identity
- Media creates:
- Beauty ideals
- Gender stereotypes
- Sexualised images
- Male dominance narratives
- Social media influences self-image, body identity and gender performance
Religion and Gender Identity
- Some religions reinforce traditional roles
- Others offer empowerment through community identity
Ethnicity and Social Identity
Meaning of Ethnic Identity
- Ethnicity = shared cultural heritage based on:
- Religion
- Language
- Traditions
- History
- Ancestry
- Ethnic identity = sense of belonging to a cultural group
How Ethnicity Shapes Identity
- Influences food, dress, religion, values, parenting styles
- Shapes norms regarding gender, family, behaviour
- Can determine experiences of inclusion, exclusion, racism or pride
Primary Socialisation and Ethnicity
- Family transmits cultural traditions, language, customs
- Children internalise ethnic norms from parents and community
Religion as Ethnic Identity Marker
- Many ethnic groups linked to particular religions
- Religion shapes moral codes, rituals, worldview
Ethnicity in Education
- Minority students may face:
- Language barriers
- Stereotyping
- Racist labelling
- Curriculum bias
- Can produce resistance identities (e.g., anti-school subcultures among marginalised groups)
National Identity and Ethnicity
- Nationalism promotes unity but may tolerate only certain ethnic expressions
- Ethnic minorities may negotiate dual identities:
- e.g., British-Asian, African-American, Arab-European
Hybrid Identities
- Globalisation → new identities combining different cultural influences
- Stuart Hall:
- Diaspora identities formed through cultural mixing
- Identity is fluid, not fixed
Postmodern Perspective
- Media and global culture encourage hybrid, cosmopolitan identities
- Young people draw on global symbols (music, fashion) to shape identity
- Ethnicity becomes a choice rather than a fixed identity for some groups
Written and Compiled By Sir Hunain Zia, World Record Holder With 154 Total A Grades, 7 Distinctions and 11 World Records For Educate A Change AS Level Sociology Full Scale Course
Age and Social Identity
Meaning of Age Identity
- Age identity shaped by social expectations associated with age groups
- Age categories differ across cultures:
- Childhood
- Youth
- Adulthood
- Middle age
- Old age
- Age identity constructed through norms about:
- Independence
- Work
- Responsibilities
- Appearance
- Behaviour
Social Construction of Childhood (Aries)
- Childhood is not natural or universal; it is historically changing
- During medieval era, children treated like small adults
- Today childhood is seen as a protected, innocent stage requiring care and schooling
- Childhood identity shaped by:
- Schooling
- Parenting
- Toys
- Media
- Laws (child labour bans, age of consent)
Youth Identity
- Strongly influenced by:
- Peer groups
- Media
- Fashion
- Music
- Social media
- Youth culture creates:
- Slang
- Style differentiation
- Subcultures (punks, goths, hip-hop, K-pop fans)
- Identity negotiation strongest during teenage years
Adult Identity
- Based on:
- Work
- Marriage
- Parenthood
- Financial responsibility
- Adult identity pressured by expectations of success, stability, maturity
Old Age Identity
- Media stereotypes of elderly people as dependent or frail
- Some societies value elderly (traditional cultures), others marginalise them
- Age identity influenced by:
- Retirement
- Health
- Loss of work roles
- Family position
Ageism
- Discrimination based on age
- Younger people often labelled “irresponsible”; older people labelled “out of touch”
Postmodern View on Age
- Age categories becoming fluid
- Anti-aging culture → older adults adopt youth styles
- Youth identity extended into adulthood through digital culture
- Media creates lifestyle identities not tied to actual age
Written and Compiled By Sir Hunain Zia, World Record Holder With 154 Total A Grades, 7 Distinctions and 11 World Records For Educate A Change AS Level Sociology Full Scale Course
Interaction Between Class, Gender, Ethnicity and Age in Identity Construction
Intersectionality (Crenshaw)
- Identity shaped by multiple overlapping categories
- A person may face inequality based on:
- Gender + ethnicity
- Class + gender
- Age + ethnicity
- Intersectionality helps explain:
- Why middle-class women experience patriarchy differently from working-class women
- Why ethnic minority men experience masculinity differently from white men
Identity as Dynamic and Changing
- Social mobility can alter class identity
- Migration can create hybrid ethnic identities
- Gender identity shifting due to cultural change
- Age identity changing due to media and consumer culture
Identity Performance (Goffman)
- People perform identities to fit situation:
- At work vs home
- With friends vs with family
- Identity is not fixed but performed
- People manage impressions to fit expectations
Postmodern Perspective on Identity
- Identity increasingly based on choice, consumption and lifestyle
- Traditional structures less powerful than before
- Individuals construct identities through:
- Fashion
- Technology
- Music
- Online identities
- Consumer choices