Research Issues: Validity, Reliability, Objectivity, Representativeness And Ethics As Important Concepts In Assessing The Value Of Different Research Methods (Copy)
1. Validity
Meaning
| Concept | Explanation | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Validity | Accuracy + truthfulness of data (does it reflect real life?) | Interview reveals real motives behind behaviour |
High Validity Methods
| Method | Why |
|---|---|
| Unstructured interviews | Deep meanings |
| Participant observation | Natural behaviour |
| Life histories | Personal insight |
Low Validity Methods
| Method | Why |
|---|---|
| Questionnaires | Fixed answers, misunderstandings |
| Experiments | Artificial settings |
| Official statistics | Underreporting (crime, mental health) |
How to Increase Validity
| Method | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Triangulation | Cross-checking using multiple methods |
| Building rapport | Encourages honesty |
| Natural settings | Real-world behaviour |
2. Reliability
Meaning
| Concept | Explanation | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Reliability | Consistency. Can results be repeated and remain the same? | Standardised questionnaire gives same results later |
High Reliability Methods
| Method | Why |
|---|---|
| Structured interviews | Same questions each time |
| Experiments | Controlled conditions |
| Questionnaires | Standardised format |
Low Reliability Methods
| Method | Why |
|---|---|
| Unstructured interviews | Different each time |
| Participant observation | Depends on researcher involvement |
How to Increase Reliability
| Method | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Standardised tools | Same wording + procedure |
| Clear operationalisation | Precise definitions |
Written and Compiled By Sir Hunain Zia, World Record Holder With 154 Total A Grades, 7 Distinctions and 11 World Records For Educate A Change AS Level Sociology Full Scale Course
3. Objectivity
Meaning
| Concept | Explanation | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Objectivity | Research free from personal bias | Neutral, detached researcher |
High Objectivity
| Method | Why |
|---|---|
| Surveys | Less researcher involvement |
| Experiments | Controlled, standardised |
| Official statistics | Collected systematically |
Low Objectivity
| Method | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Participant observation | Researcher becomes involved |
| Unstructured interviews | Researcher shapes conversation |
How to Improve Objectivity
| Technique | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Detachment | Avoid personal influence |
| Standardisation | Reduces subjective interpretation |
| Peer review | Others check for bias |
4. Representativeness
Meaning
| Concept | Explanation | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Representativeness | How well the sample reflects the population | Sample includes all genders, classes, ages |
High Representativeness
| Method | Why |
|---|---|
| Large surveys | Wide coverage |
| Random + stratified sampling | Equal chance for all groups |
| Official statistics | National coverage |
Low Representativeness
| Method | Why |
|---|---|
| Participant observation | Small, specific groups |
| Unstructured interviews | Small samples |
| Case studies | Single group/person |
Improving Representativeness
| Technique | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Stratified sampling | Ensures all groups included |
| Larger sample sizes | More accurate reflection |
Written and Compiled By Sir Hunain Zia, World Record Holder With 154 Total A Grades, 7 Distinctions and 11 World Records For Educate A Change AS Level Sociology Full Scale Course
5. Ethics
Meaning
| Concept | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Ethics | Moral rules protecting participants |
Main Ethical Principles
| Principle | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Informed consent | Participants agree voluntarily |
| Confidentiality | Protect identity |
| No harm | Emotional + physical safety |
| Privacy | Respect personal boundaries |
| Right to withdraw | Participant can exit anytime |
| Honesty | No deception (unless justified) |
Ethically Safe Methods
| Method | Why |
|---|---|
| Questionnaires | No personal contact, minimal risk |
| Structured interviews | Predictable questions |
| Official statistics | No direct involvement with participants |
Ethically Risky Methods
| Method | Why |
|---|---|
| Covert observation | No consent; deception |
| Experiments | Potential harm |
| Research on vulnerable groups | Higher emotional + protection issues |
Written and Compiled By Sir Hunain Zia, World Record Holder With 154 Total A Grades, 7 Distinctions and 11 World Records For Educate A Change AS Level Sociology Full Scale Course
6. Using These Concepts to Assess Methods (Quick Table)
| Method | Validity | Reliability | Objectivity | Representativeness | Ethics |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Questionnaires | Low–medium | High | High | High (large samples) | High |
| Structured Interviews | Medium | High | Medium | Medium–high | High |
| Unstructured Interviews | High | Low | Low | Low | Medium |
| Participant Observation | Very high | Very low | Very low | Very low | Low (especially covert) |
| Experiments | Low–medium | Very high | High | Low | Medium–low |
| Official Statistics | Medium | High | High | Very high | Very high |