October November 2025 Paper 22

AS Level Sociology 9699/22 October/November 2025

Question 1: Describe two ways the family supports capitalism. [4]

One way the family supports capitalism is by acting as a unit of consumption. Families purchase goods and services such as food, housing, clothing and entertainment, which generates profit for capitalist businesses. This continuous demand ensures the circulation of money within the economy and supports economic growth, benefiting capitalist systems.

Another way is through the reproduction of labour power. The family produces and raises children who will become the future workforce, without any cost to employers. Parents invest time, resources and effort into socialising children and preparing them for work, ensuring a steady supply of labour for capitalism.

Question 2(a): Explain two ways lone-parent families are harmful to society, according to the New Right. [8]

According to the New Right, one way lone-parent families are harmful is that they may lead to increased deviance among children. Murray argues that the absence of a father figure results in a lack of discipline and authority, particularly affecting boys. Without proper primary socialisation into norms such as respect for authority, children may be more likely to engage in anti-social or criminal behaviour. This contributes to wider social disorder, supporting the New Right belief that the nuclear family is essential for social stability.

Another way is that lone-parent families may create welfare dependency and place a financial burden on the state. The New Right argues that single-parent households, particularly those led by mothers, are more likely to rely on state benefits. This can contribute to the development of an underclass that is dependent on welfare rather than participating in paid work. This cycle of poverty and dependency increases government spending and reduces economic productivity, which is seen as harmful to society.

Written and Compiled By Sir Hunain Zia (AYLOTI), World Record Holder With 154 Total A Grades, 7 Distinctions and 11 World Records For Educate A Change AS Level Sociology Full Scale Course

Question 2(b): Explain two limitations of New Right views of the family. [6]

One limitation of the New Right view is that it is overly deterministic. It assumes that children raised in lone-parent families will inevitably experience poor socialisation and engage in deviant behaviour. However, this ignores the fact that many lone-parent families successfully raise well-adjusted children. By generalising all lone-parent households as problematic, the New Right oversimplifies complex social realities and fails to account for variation in individual experiences.

Another limitation is that the New Right ignores the negative aspects of the nuclear family. Feminist sociologists argue that the nuclear family can be a site of oppression, particularly for women who may experience unequal division of labour or domestic abuse. By idealising the nuclear family, the New Right fails to acknowledge these issues, limiting its explanatory power in understanding family life.

Question 3(a): ‘There is no dominant family type today.’ Explain this view. [10]

The view that there is no dominant family type today suggests that modern societies are characterised by diversity in family structures rather than a single, universal model. This reflects significant social changes in areas such as marriage, gender roles and cultural norms.

One key explanation comes from the Rapoports’ concept of family diversity. They identified several types of diversity, including organisational, cultural, class, cohort and life-course diversity. This means that families differ in structure, roles and experiences depending on factors such as ethnicity, social class and stage in life. For example, some individuals may live in nuclear families, while others may experience lone-parent or extended family structures at different points in their lives. This diversity challenges the idea of a single dominant family type.

Another explanation is linked to postmodernist and late modern theories, particularly the work of Beck and Giddens. They argue that increased individualism has led to greater choice in personal relationships. The concept of the ‘pure relationship’ suggests that relationships are based on emotional satisfaction rather than obligation, leading to a variety of family forms such as cohabitation, same-sex families and single-person households. This flexibility in relationship formation supports the idea that there is no longer a dominant family type.

Written and Compiled By Sir Hunain Zia (AYLOTI), World Record Holder With 154 Total A Grades, 7 Distinctions and 11 World Records For Educate A Change AS Level Sociology Full Scale Course

Additionally, secularisation has reduced the influence of religion on family life, making alternative family forms more acceptable. In the past, religious norms strongly promoted marriage and the nuclear family, but declining religious influence has allowed for greater acceptance of diversity. Feminist movements have also contributed by challenging traditional gender roles and promoting equality, further diversifying family structures.

Question 3(b): ‘There is no dominant family type today.’ Using sociological material, give one argument against this view. [6]

One argument against this view is that the nuclear family remains the dominant family type in many societies. Functionalist sociologists such as Murdock argue that the nuclear family is universal because it performs essential functions such as reproduction and socialisation. Parsons’ functional fit theory also suggests that the nuclear family is best suited to modern industrial societies due to its ability to provide geographical mobility and economic efficiency.

Furthermore, Chester’s concept of the neo-conventional family suggests that while there appears to be diversity, most individuals still aspire to the nuclear family structure. Many people may temporarily experience alternative family forms, such as cohabitation or lone parenthood, but eventually form nuclear families. This indicates that the nuclear family remains numerically dominant, challenging the view that there is no dominant family type.

Question 4: Evaluate radical feminist views of gender inequality in the family. [26]

Radical feminist theory argues that gender inequality in the family is rooted in patriarchy, a system of male dominance that operates across all areas of society. According to this perspective, the family is a key institution through which men maintain power over women.

Radical feminists such as Firestone and Millett argue that the family is the main site of women’s oppression. They reject the functionalist view that the family is based on mutual benefit, instead suggesting that it is structured around control and coercion. Within the family, men typically hold economic power and authority, controlling decision-making and financial resources. This creates unequal power relations that disadvantage women.

Another important argument is that women are exploited through unpaid domestic labour. Delphy and Leonard argue that women’s work in the home benefits men by freeing them to focus on paid employment. This reinforces gender inequality, as women’s contributions are undervalued and unpaid. Additionally, women may experience a triple shift, balancing paid work, domestic labour and emotional support, further highlighting inequality within the family.

Radical feminists also emphasise the role of violence and control. They argue that men may use physical and psychological abuse to maintain dominance within relationships. Firestone suggests that love itself can be a mechanism of control, as women may accept unequal relationships due to emotional dependence. This highlights the depth of patriarchal control within family life.

Written and Compiled By Sir Hunain Zia (AYLOTI), World Record Holder With 154 Total A Grades, 7 Distinctions and 11 World Records For Educate A Change AS Level Sociology Full Scale Course

However, there are significant criticisms of radical feminist views. Liberal feminists argue that gender inequality within the family has decreased over time. Increased female participation in the workforce has given women greater financial independence, reducing their dependence on men. This has led to more equal relationships and a shift towards the symmetrical family, as suggested by Young and Willmott.

Additionally, the idea of the negotiated family suggests that roles within the family are increasingly based on choice rather than patriarchal control. Individuals may share responsibilities based on personal preferences, indicating that family life is more flexible and less oppressive than radical feminists suggest.

Another criticism is that radical feminists fail to recognise that many women value family life and choose traditional roles. Hakim’s preference theory argues that some women prefer to focus on home and family rather than careers, suggesting that not all gender roles are imposed through oppression.

Radical feminist views have also been criticised for being ethnocentric. Black feminists argue that the family can provide support and protection, particularly in the context of racism. This challenges the idea that the family is always a site of oppression, suggesting that experiences vary across different social groups.

Written and Compiled By Sir Hunain Zia (AYLOTI), World Record Holder With 154 Total A Grades, 7 Distinctions and 11 World Records For Educate A Change AS Level Sociology Full Scale Course

In evaluation, radical feminist theory provides a powerful critique of gender inequality within the family, particularly in highlighting issues such as domestic labour and power imbalance. However, it tends to overgeneralise and underestimate the extent of change and diversity in modern family life. While inequality persists, family relationships are increasingly complex and cannot be fully explained by patriarchy alone. Therefore, radical feminist views are valuable but limited in their explanatory power.

Question 5: Evaluate the view that there is little difference between motherhood and fatherhood today. [26]

The view that there is little difference between motherhood and fatherhood today reflects the idea that traditional gender roles within the family have become increasingly similar, with both parents sharing responsibilities more equally. This perspective is often associated with broader social changes such as gender equality, individualisation and changing cultural norms.

One argument supporting this view is the rise of the ‘new father’. Sociologists such as Dermott and Pleck highlight how modern fathers are more involved in childcare and emotional support than in the past. Unlike traditional fathers who were primarily disciplinarians and breadwinners, contemporary fathers are increasingly participating in nurturing roles, including feeding, bathing and spending time with their children. This suggests that the distinction between motherhood and fatherhood is becoming less clear.

Another supporting argument is the increasing participation of women in paid employment. As women take on the breadwinner role, the traditional division between instrumental and expressive roles, as described by Parsons, has weakened. Many families now operate as dual-earner households, where both parents contribute financially and domestically. This shift blurs the boundaries between motherhood and fatherhood, as both parents share similar responsibilities.

Furthermore, social policies such as paternity leave and shared parental leave have encouraged fathers to become more involved in childcare. These policies reflect changing societal expectations, promoting the idea that parenting is a shared responsibility rather than the sole duty of mothers. This institutional support strengthens the argument that differences between motherhood and fatherhood are decreasing.

Written and Compiled By Sir Hunain Zia (AYLOTI), World Record Holder With 154 Total A Grades, 7 Distinctions and 11 World Records For Educate A Change AS Level Sociology Full Scale Course

Postmodernist and late modern theorists such as Giddens also support this view through the concept of the negotiated family. In this framework, roles are not fixed but are shaped by individual preferences and agreements. This allows couples to distribute responsibilities in ways that suit their circumstances, further reducing traditional gender differences in parenting roles.

However, there are strong arguments against the view that motherhood and fatherhood are now similar. Feminist sociologists argue that significant differences remain, particularly in terms of the division of labour. Despite increased male involvement, women continue to perform the majority of childcare and domestic tasks. This reflects the persistence of the dual burden, where women balance paid work with unpaid domestic responsibilities.

Additionally, cultural expectations continue to prioritise motherhood over fatherhood. Women are often expected to take primary responsibility for childcare, particularly during early childhood. The concept of the ‘motherhood penalty’ highlights how women’s careers may be negatively affected by their role as mothers, while men do not experience similar disadvantages. This suggests that motherhood remains distinct from fatherhood in terms of social expectations and consequences.

There is also evidence that fathers’ involvement is often limited to more enjoyable aspects of childcare, while mothers handle routine and demanding tasks. This indicates that, although fathers may appear more involved, the nature of their involvement differs from that of mothers. As a result, the roles are not truly equal.

Structural and economic factors also reinforce differences. For example, maternity leave is typically longer and more widely used than paternity leave, reinforcing the idea that childcare is primarily the responsibility of mothers. Additionally, workplace expectations may discourage men from taking on more active parenting roles, limiting the extent of change.

Written and Compiled By Sir Hunain Zia (AYLOTI), World Record Holder With 154 Total A Grades, 7 Distinctions and 11 World Records For Educate A Change AS Level Sociology Full Scale Course

Cross-cultural evidence further challenges the view. In many societies, traditional gender roles remain strongly enforced, with clear distinctions between motherhood and fatherhood. Religious and cultural norms may emphasise women’s role as caregivers and men’s role as providers, indicating that the extent of change varies significantly across contexts.

Radical feminists would argue that these differences persist because patriarchy continues to shape family life. Even when roles appear more equal, underlying power structures may still favour men. For example, men may retain greater control over decision-making and resources within the family.

In evaluation, while there has been a clear shift towards greater similarity between motherhood and fatherhood, particularly in more liberal and industrialised societies, it is inaccurate to suggest that there is little difference between them. Significant inequalities and distinctions remain, shaped by cultural expectations, economic structures and persistent gender norms.

Written and Compiled By Sir Hunain Zia (AYLOTI), World Record Holder With 154 Total A Grades, 7 Distinctions and 11 World Records For Educate A Change AS Level Sociology Full Scale Course

Overall, the view is partially valid. There has been progress towards more equal parenting roles, but the idea that motherhood and fatherhood are now largely the same overlooks the continued importance of gender in shaping family experiences.